Abstract and outlines for Cozumel (Jan 15-22).
Carl M. Anderson, Instructor Harvard Medical School
Assistant Psychobiologist, Developmental Biopsychiatry Research
Program
and Brain Imaging Center, McLean Hospital 115 Mill St. Belmont,
MA 02178
Ph: 617-855-2972 Fax: 617-855-3712
Email: Carl_anderson@hms.harvard.edu
Web site: http:\\remfractal.mclean.org:8080
Sunday, January 16th 2000.
Neural Dynamics and the Fractal Nature of Mind/Brain.
The sciences of non-linear dynamics and fractals speak to
a fundamentally new view of how brain and mind are organized,
with simple themes recursively nested on multiple sublevels of
organization from the activity of ion channels to the growth of
the internet. This talk will attempt to give a non-technical
overview of how these concepts have been applied to brain and
mind by various researchers including Walter Freeman 1-5, Arnold
Mandell 6-9, myself 10-14 and others 9,15-17. Walter Freeman's
concepts of how the brain uses chaos to make sense of the world
will be described along with the concepts of chaos, attractors
and spaces of states (a short video will be shown if possible).
Then an introduction to the work of Arnold Mandell, a psychiartist
who was the first to apply nonlinear dynamics to psychopathology,
will be presented. Dr. Mandell and I have developed Benoit Mandelbrot's12-14
concept of fractal-time to describe how spontaneous fluctuations
occurring during REM sleep or orienting responses as examples
of dynamic brain self-organization. In creating a science of the
irregular, Mandelbrot18,19began a renaissance in the way order
is perceived in nature, particularly, in the spontaneous irregular
patterns of neural activity which are the foundations of mind.
Central to the Mandelbrot renaissance is the concept that patterns
termed "fractal" or "self-similar" have recurrent
irregularity in space or time repeated like the layers of an onion
at different levels or scales. Spontaneous behavioral phenomena
at all levels of organisms from ion channel currents to the foraging
patterns of animals to reaction time fluctuations generated by
subjects in cognitive science experiments exhibit these recurrent
fluctuations. Fluctuations, once tacitly overlooked and excluded
as noisy, random outliers, reveal a previously hidden fractal
or self-similar order in time that is transforming the way the
biological foundations of brain/mind are conceptualized by a growing
number of investigators.
I will conclude by describing recent fMRI work at McLean (supported
by the Center for Consciousness Studies) using blood oxygenation
level dependent (BOLD) signals to image brain regional networks
involving the temporal lobes, brainstem and cerebellum and activated
during the recall of neutral or emotional memories. We observed,
using wavelet based analysis of fractal fluctuations in BOLD,
activation in right hemisphere during recall of emotional memories
as well as in the brainstem and cerebellar vermis during "mindfulness"
meditation 20.
1. Freeman, W.J. The neurobiology of multimodal sensory integration.
Integrative Physiological & Behavioral Science 33,
124-9 (1998).
2. Freeman, W.J. The physiological basis of mental images. Biological
Psychiatry 18, 1107-25 (1983).
3. Freeman, W.J. & Skarda, C.A. Spatial EEG patterns, non-linear
dynamics and perception: the neo-Sherringtonian view. Brain
Research 357, 147-75 (1985).
4. Freeman, W.J. The physiology of perception. Scientific American
264, 78-85 (1991).
5. Freeman, W.J. Characterization of state transitions in spatially
distributed, chaotic, nonlinear, dynamical systems in cerebral
cortex. Integrative Physiological & Behavioral Science
29, 294-306 (1994).
6. Mandell, A.J. From intermittency to transitivity in neuropsychobiological
flows. American Journal of Physiology 245, R484-94
(1983).
7. Mandell, A.J. Interhemispheric fusion. Journal of Psychoactive
Drugs 17, 257-66 (1985).
8. Mandell, A.J. & Selz, K.A. Nonlinear dynamical patterns
as personality theory for neurobiology and psychiatry. Psychiatry
58, 371-90 (1995).
9. Paulus, M.P., Geyer, M.A., Gold, L.H. & Mandell, A.J. Application
of entropy measures derived from the ergodic theory of dynamical
systems to rat locomotor behavior. Proceedings of the National
Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 87,
723-7 (1990).
10. Anderson, C.M. Ibogaine Therapy in Chemical Dependency and
Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: A Hypothesis Involving the Fractal
Nature of Fetal REM Sleep and Interhemispheric Reintegration.
in Multidisciplinary Association For Psychedelic Studies Vol.
VIII 5-14 (, 1998).
11. Anderson, C.M. et al. 1/f-Like spectra in cortical
and subcortical brain structures: a possible marker of behavioral
state-dependent self organization. in Noise in Physical Systems
and 1/f Fluctuations, Vol. 285 (eds. Handel, P.J. & Chung,
A.J.) 737-740 (American Institute of Physics, St. Louis, 1993).
12. Anderson, C.M. Ph.D Dissertation, Florida Atlantic University
(1995).
13. Anderson, C.M. & Mandell, A.J. Fractal time and the foundations
of consciousness: vertical convergence of 1/f phenomena from ion
channels to behavioral states. in Fractals of Brain, Fractals
of Mind, Vol. 7 (eds. Mac Cormac, E. & Stamenov, M.I.)
75-126 (John Benjamins, Amsterdam/Philadelphia, 1996).
14. Anderson, C.M. et al. The development of nuchal atonia
associated with active (REM) sleep in fetal sheep: presence of
recurrent fractal organization. Brain Research 787,
351-7 (1998).
15. Liebovitch, L.S. Fractals and chaos simplified for the
life sciences, 268 (Oxford University Press, New York, 1998).
16. Selz, K.A., Mandell, A.J., Anderson, C.M., Smotherman, W.P.
& Teicher, M.H. Distributions of local Mandelbrot-Hurst exponents:
Motor activity in fetal rats of cocainized mother and manic-depressives.
Fractals 3, 893-904 (1995).
17. Smotherman, W.P., Selz, K.A. & Mandell, A.J. Dynamical
entropy is conserved during cocaine-induced changes in fetal rat
motor patterns. Psychoneuroendocrinology 21, 173-87
(1996).
18. Mandelbrot, B.B. Multifractals and 1/f Noise: Wild Self-Affinity
in Physics(1963-1976), 432 (Springer, New York, 1999).
19. Mandelbrot, B.B. The Fractal Geometry of Nature, (W.H.
Freeman, New York, 1983).
20. Anderson CM, SB Lowen, MH Teicher, LC Mass, PF Renshaw. State-of-mind-dependent
Fractal Fluctuations in BOLD fMRI. Dynamical Neuroscience, Delray,
Fl., Oct21-23th , 1999. (http://remfractal.mclean.org:8080/wave1999.pdf).
Thursday, January 20th 2000.
The Cerebellar Vermis and Psychopathology
The cerebellum, heretofore seen as only involved in physical
coordination of locomotion, balance and eye movements, appears
to be involved in the enduring effects of child abuse and the
symptoms of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder or ADHD as
well as a wide spectrum of psychopathological disorders (see conclusions).
Following a historical overview of the role of the cerebellar
vermis in psychopathology, a description of recent fMRI findings
implicating it in the enduring effects of child abuse and childhood
ADHD as well as a wide spectrum of psychopathological disorders
(see conclusions) will be presented.
Early verbal or sexual child abuse can leave invisible scars with
lifelong effects on emotional coordination. ADHD is a highly
heritable disorder estimated to affect 6% of school-aged children
characterized by poor emotional, attentional and physical coordination,
as well as by age-inappropriate hyperactivity and impulsivity.
These symptoms often respond dramatically to treatment with stimulants.
Although the cerebellum has been viewed primarily as a brain
region involved in the coordination of movement, an increasing
number of studies have demonstrated that the cerebellum may play
a role in higher cognitive function and emotional control. In
two functional magnetic resonance imaging studies conducted at
McLean Hospital, we have observed activity in the cerebellum that
further supports these new roles for this brain region. In the
first study of the long-term effects of early abuse in adults,
we have observed high activity in a region of the cerebellum called
the vermis which strongly correlates with scores on rating scales
typically used to assess psychopathology. In the second study,
we observed high activity in the vermis associated with behavioral
hyperactivity in ADHD children which decreased when these children
were treated with the stimulant methylphenidate, also known as
"Ritalin." In both studies abnormally high neural
activity in the vermis was associated with abnormal behavioral
and emotional coordination.
The abused and control subjects who participated in the first
study were between the ages of 18 and 22 and were recruited by
newspaper advertisements and posters placed at local colleges
and on the subway. After completing an extensive questionnaire
covering childhood experiences, family history and psychological
characteristics, subjects were further screened by a clinician
for a history of psychiatric illness, physical injury or trauma
which could interfere with the interpretation of their data. The
limbic system checklist-33 (LSCL-33), a self-report questionnaire
developed to evaluate how frequently abused subjects experience
33 symptoms of temporal lobe epilepsy, was also part of the questionnaire.
A typical LSCL-33 question is, "how often have you experienced
the sudden, abrupt and unexplained onset of the sensation of something
crawling under your skin or a rising or sinking feeling in your
stomach - like being in an elevator." Previous studies by
our group have shown that adults who have encountered abuse before
the age of 18 self-report a higher percentage of these experiences.
Higher scores on the LSCL-33 were strongly associated with higher
activity in the cerebellar vermis, which has connections to the
limbic system and therefore may play a role in the coordination
of emotional behavior.
Many researchers believe that early child abuse could cause changes
in the brain similar to a process called "kindling"
that produces epilepsy in experimental animals. As the term suggests,
a small spark set to tender can eventually grow to a large fire.
Electrical stimulation of the limbic system can, if repeated
frequently, lead to seizures. Similarly, the repeated trauma
of verbal or sexual abuse may result in brain electrical abnormalities
in humans associated with epileptic-like behavioral experiences.
The cerebellar vermis appears to play a role in the control of
epilepsy as clinical studies in humans have found that electrical
stimulation of the vermis suppresses the spread of epileptic seizures.
We interpret our findings to suggest that adults who suffered
abuse during childhood may have abnormalities of the cerebellar
vermis which impair its ability to coordinate emotional behavior.
Abnormal activity or blood flow in the cerebellar vermis may
indicate pathology in this region that interferes with the normal
ability to suppress strong and impulsive feelings, memories, thoughts
and experiences during everyday life, predisposing child abuse
victims to recurrent behavioral and psychiatric problems. These
findings are significant also in light of the fact that the cerebellum
is still growing during childhood and thus may be particularly
susceptible to the effects of early verbal or sexual abuse.
Recent neuroanatomical studies at the National Institutes of Health
have also found developmental defects in the cerebellar vermis
in childhood ADHD. These developmental defects may contribute
to the abnormal activity in the cerebellar vermis associated with
the hyperactivity, emotional outbursts and inattention that were
observed in the ADHD boys we studied. In our study, eight boys
who displayed excessive activity during a boring computer test
were given different doses of stimulant medication and examined
with the same functional imaging procedure used to study the abuse
subjects. Abnormal activity in the cerebellar vermis and behavioral
hyperactivity in the ADHD boys decreased as higher medication
doses were administered. Attention to and performance on the
computer test also improved with increasing doses of medication.
Although abnormal activity in other brain areas of ADHD children
changed with dose, the changes in the cerebellar vermis most closely
matched improvements in ADHD symptoms. These findings demonstrate
for the first time a functional role for the vermis in childhood
ADHD.
In conclusion, although this is not a brain region we normally
think of as playing an important role in psychiatric symptomatology,
there is an enormous convergence of new data suggesting that the
vermis, through the bilateral fastigial nuclei, its primary cerebellar
output nuclei, has monosynaptic influence over brainstem sites
such as the parabrachial nucleus (PN) (1), locus ceruleus (LC)
(2), periaqueductal gray (PAG), ventral tegmental area (VTA),
substantia nigra reticulata (SNR) (3,4) and pendunculopontine
tegmentum (PPT ) (5) implicating it in bihemispheric emotional
and attentional modulation. Neuroanatomical and neurofunctional
abnormalities in the vermis have been observed in a wide range
of psychopathological conditions with a developmental genesis
such as bipolar(6-8) and unipolar depression (9, 10), schizophrenia
(8, 11), autism(12), fragile X syndrome(13), fetal alcohol syndrome
(14) and ADHD(15, 16). Due to its protracted postnatal anatomical
(17-19) and functional development(20) the vermis may be particularly
sensitive to the effects of early trauma (21). The vermis, through
its influence on brainstem monaminergic and forebrain hypothalamic
systems could coordinate bi-hemispheric aspects of limbic system
activity during emotional development(22-25) and therefore may
represent an "Achilles heel" of susceptibility to early
abuse.
References:
1. Supple WF, Jr., Kapp BS: Anatomical and physiological relationships
between the anterior cerebellar vermis and the pontine parabrachial
nucleus in the rabbit. Brain Research Bulletin 1994; 33(5):561-74
2. Reis DJ, Golanov EV: Autonomic and vasomotor regulation. International
Review of Neurobiology 1997; 41:121-49
3. Snider RS, Maiti A: Cerebellar contributions to the Papez circuit.
Journal of Neuroscience Research 1976; 2(2):133-46
4. Snider RS, Maiti A, Snider SR: Cerebellar pathways to ventral
midbrain and nigra. Experimental Neurology 1976; 53(3):714-28
5. Haines DE, Dietrichs E, Mihailoff GA, McDonald EF: The cerebellar-hypothalamic
axis: basic circuits and clinical observations. International
Review of Neurobiology 1997; 41:83-107
6. Fischler B, D'Haenen H, Cluydts R, Michiels V, Demets K, Bossuyt
A, Kaufman L, De Meirleir K: Comparison of 99m Tc HMPAO SPECT
scan between chronic fatigue syndrome, major depression and healthy
controls: an exploratory study of clinical correlates of regional
cerebral blood flow. Neuropsychobiology 1996; 34(4):175-83
7. Lauterbach EC: Bipolar disorders, dystonia, and compulsion
after dysfunction of the cerebellum, dentatorubrothalamic tract,
and substantia nigra. Biological Psychiatry 1996; 40(8):726-30
8. Loeber RT, Sherwood AR, Renshaw PF, Cohen BM, Yurgelun-Todd
DA: Differences in cerebellar blood volume in schizophrenia and
bipolar disorder. Schizophrenia Research 1999; 37(1):81-89
9. Beauregard M, Leroux JM, Bergman S, Arzoumanian Y, Beaudoin
G, Bourgouin P, Stip E: The functional neuroanatomy of major depression:
an fMRI study using an emotional activation paradigm. Neuroreport
1998; 9(14):3253-8
10. Pillay SS, Yurgelun-Todd DA, Bonello CM, Lafer B, Fava M,
Renshaw PF: A quantitative magnetic resonance imaging study of
cerebral and cerebellar gray matter volume in primary unipolar
major depression: relationship to treatment response and clinical
severity. Biological Psychiatry 1997; 42(2):79-84
11. Jacobsen LK, Giedd JN, Berquin PC, Krain AL, Hamburger SD,
Kumra S, Rapoport JL: Quantitative morphology of the cerebellum
and fourth ventricle in childhood-onset schizophrenia. American
Journal of Psychiatry 1997; 154(12):1663-9
12. Courchesne E: Neuroanatomic imaging in autism. Pediatrics
1991; 87(5 Pt 2):781-90
13. Mostofsky SH, Reiss AL, Lockhart P, Denckla MB: Evaluation
of cerebellar size in attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder.
Journal of Child Neurology 1998; 13(9):434-9
14. Sowell ER, Jernigan TL, Mattson SN, Riley EP, Sobel DF, Jones
KL: Abnormal Development of the Cerebellar Vermis in Children
Prenatally Exposed to Alcohol - Size Reduction in Lobules I-V.
Alcoholism, Clinical & Experimental Research 1996; 20(1):31-34
15. Berquin PC, Giedd JN, Jacobsen LK, Hamburger SD, Krain AL,
Rapoport JL, Castellanos FX: Cerebellum in Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity
Disorder - a Morphometric Mri Study. Neurology 1998; 50(4):1087-1093
16. Mostofsky SH, Mazzocco MMM, Aakalu G, Warsofsky IS, Denckla
MB, Reiss AL: Decreased Cerebellar Posterior Vermis Size in Fragile
X Syndrome - Correlation With Neurocognitive Performance. Neurology
1998; 50(1):121-130
17. Hayakawa K, Konishi Y, Matsuda T, Kuriyama M, Konishi K, Yamashita
K, Okumura R, Hamanaka D: Development and aging of brain midline
structures: assessment with MR imaging. Radiology 1989; 172(1):171-7
18. Isumi H, Mizuguchi M, Takashima S: Differential Development
of the Human Cerebellar Vermis - Immunohistochemical and Morphometrical
Evaluation. Brain & Development 1997; 19(4):254-257
19. Jernigan TL, Tallal P: Late childhood changes in brain morphology
observable with MRI. Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology
1990; 32(5):379-85
20. Chugani HT: A Critical Period of Brain Development - Studies
of Cerebral Glucose Utilization With Pet. Preventive Medicine
1998; 27(2):184-188
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induced retardation of brain development: an animal model. Environmental
Health Perspectives 1987; 74:153-68
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PL, Vaituzis AC, Vauss YC, Hamburger SD, Kaysen D, Rapoport JL:
Quantitative magnetic resonance imaging of human brain development:
ages 4-18. Cerebral Cortex 1996; 6(4):551-60
23. Flor-Henry P: Observations, reflections and speculations on
the cerebral determinants of mood and on the bilaterally asymmetrical
distributions of the major neurotransmitter systems. Acta Neurologica
Scandinavica. Supplementum 1986; 109:75-89
24. Liederman J: The dynamics of interhemispheric collaboration
and hemispheric control. Brain & Cognition 1998; 36(2):193-208
25. Pettigrew JD, Miller SM: A 'sticky' interhemispheric switch
in bipolar disorder? Proceedings of the Royal Society of London
- Series B: Biological Sciences 1998; 265(1411):2141-8
Thursday, January 20th 2000.
The Cerebellar Vermis as the Cortex of Damasio's Proto-Self
Antonio Damasio in his new work " The Feeling of What Happens: Body and Emotion in the Making of Consciousness" proposes the concept of an unconscious dynamic "proto-self" as the "spine" of conscious experience, associated with right hemisphere and brainstem regions, particularly the parabrachial nucleus. However, Damasio neglects to describe the important unifying contribution of the vermis to the upper brainstem. This talk will focus on conceptualizing the Cerebellar Vermis (CV), Parabrachial Nucleus (PN) and the Extended Amygdala (EA) as bi-hemispheric channels from the body through the brainstem and limbic system by which fractal time fluctuations vertically converge in cognitive, emotional and meditative processes. I will expand upon his concept of the "proto-self" using the mathematical and new anatomical concepts: fractal time and bilateral CV-PN-EA networks. This will synthesize the preceding two talks and provide a more encompassing perspective from which to view the role of emotion in all aspects of sentience from REM sleep to meditative states.
The central idea, as stated in several recent papers and web documents, is that spontaneous changes in emotion and thought arise from nonlinear interactions over a wide range of time scales among brain structures, mind and body. The functional "binding" underlying brain/mind interactions is a "broad-band" binding (as proposed in our 1996 article6 ) originating from coherence among vertically convergent fractal fluctuations. Our preliminary findings confirm the existence of state-of-mind-dependent nonlinear "fractal processes". Further, mindfulness meditation may enhance coherence in CV-PN-EA networks.
The CV directly, and indirectly by way of the
fastigial nucleus (FN), has extensive projections to monoamine
brainstem cell body regions such as the ventral tegmental area
(VTA), substantia nigra (SN) and medial raphe nuclei (mRN), as
well as the midline periaqueductal gray (PAG), parabrachial nucleus
(PB), and intralaminar thalamus (IT) and thus may be ideally positioned
to bilaterally coordinate the basal ganglia and the interhemispheric
synchronization of homogenous frontal and temporal cortical regions
with ongoing sensory-affective-motor experience 7-14, 45-49 .
The CV appears to play a critical role in emotional and cognitive
coordination as evidenced by its extensive involvement with psychopathology.
In humans with affective disorders, electrical stimulation of
the CV produces improvement in affect, profound reductions in
symptoms such as violence and rage15, tension and anxiety16, and
increases in alertness7,18. Robert Heath found that chronic CV
stimulation was profoundly effective for symptom relief in a wide
range of psychiatric disorders such as violence, depression and
schizophrenia15. Violently aggressive rhesus monkeys raised
under conditions of maternal deprivation were tamed with cerebellar
lesions that included the vermis19. These striking behavioral
and physiological observations can easily be reconciled with neuroanatomical,
neurochemical and neurodevelopmental knowledge of the CV7-13,20,
45-49. Neuroanatomical and neurofunctional abnormalities in the
CV have been observed in a wide range of psychopathological conditions
with a developmental genesis such as bipolar 21-23and unipolar
depression24,25, schizophrenia23,26, autism27, fragile X syndrome28,
fetal alcohol syndrome29 and ADHD30-31. The protracted postnatal
anatomical32-34and functional35 development of the CV may render
it particularly sensitive to effects of early trauma.
Our recent functional imaging observations2-4 that ADHD children
and subjects with a history of sexual or verbal child abuse have
increases in vermal blood flow that strongly correlate with a
number of measures of psychopathology is consistent with the hypothesis
that developmental lesions of the CV could result in abnormalities
of bilateral modulation of the limbic system. The limbic system
checklist-33 (LSCL-33)36, a self-report questionnaire developed
to evaluate how frequently subjects with a history of abuse experience
33 symptoms of temporal lobe epilepsy, was also part of the questionnaire.
A typical LSCL-33 question is, "how often have you experienced
the sudden, abrupt and unexplained onset of the sensation of something
crawling under your skin or a rising or sinking feeling in your
stomach - like being in an elevator." Teicher et al. have
shown that adults who have encountered abuse before the age of
18 self-report a higher percentage of these experiences. Higher
scores on the LSCL-33 were strongly associated with blood flow
in the CV. ADHD children show stimulant mediated dose-dependent
decreases in CV blood flow correlated with improved control of
movement and attention3,4. Also, the CV appears to play a role
in the control of epilepsy as preclinical37,38and clinical studies
in humans16,18,39 use electrical stimulation of the vermis to
suppress the onset and spread of seizures. Perhaps those who
suffered abuse during childhood may have abnormalities of the
CV which impair its ability to coordinate bi-hemispheric emotional
behavior, interfering with the ability to suppress "seizure-like"
impulsive behavior or the unwanted intrusion of feelings, memories,
thoughts and experiences.
PET imaging has demonstrated that the CV is the primary region
involved in upright postural equilibrium during bimanual locomotion18,41.
Perhaps the CV, through its influence on brainstem monaminergic
systems, PB, PAG and EA coordinates bilateral aspects of hemispheric
activity during emotional behavior42-44 which is disordered by
early abuse or congenital lesions in ADHD30,31. We therefore
conceptualized the CV as the cortex of the proto-self, primarily
outside of our awareness, coordinating contextually the switching
of the right and left hemispheres as we experience the "stream"
of consciousness43,44. The CV may also suppress visual experience
during saccadic eye movements, or loss of balance, switching the
search light of awareness on and off by way of the intralaminar
thalamus, when the glare would be distracting to self preservation.
The process of meditation may enhance fractal-time coherence by
bringing the conscious mind into contact with the internal milieu
of the proto-self. During meditative practice, such as focusing
attention and maintaining it on the physical sensation of air
entering the nasal passages, many levels of coordination along
CV-PN-EA networks unite, and functional hemispheric asymmetry
may abate.
References:
1. Anderson CM, SB Lowen, MH Teicher, LC Mass, PF Renshaw.
State-of-mind-dependent Fractal Fluctuations in BOLD fMRI. Dynamical
Neuroscience, Delray, Fl., Oct21-23th , 1999. (http://remfractal.mclean.org:8080/wave1999.pdf).
2. Anderson CM, Polcari AM, McGreenery CE, Maas LC, Renshaw PF,
Teicher MH. Methyphendate dose-dependently decresses blood flow
in the cerebellar vermis of children with ADHD. poster presented
at NCDEU June 1999 (http://remfractal.mclean.org:8080/NCDEU.pdf).
3. Anderson CM, Polcari AM, McGreenery CE, Maas LC, Renshaw PF,
Teicher MH. Childhood Abuse: Limbic System Checklist-33 and Cerebellar
Vermis Blood Flow. APA May 1999 (http://remfractal.mclean.org:8080/apa99.pdf).
4. Anderson CM, Polcari AM, McGreenery CE, Maas LC, Renshaw PF,
Teicher MH. Cerebellar Vermis Blood Flow: Associations with Psychiatric
Symptoms in Child Abuse and ADHD. Soc. Neurosci. Abstr. Vol. 25,
Part 2, p. 1637. (http://remfractal.mclean.org:8080/ns1999.pdf)
5. Damasion, A (1999). The Feeling of What Happens:Body and Emotion
in the Making of Consciousness. Harcourt Brace & Company,
N.Y., N.Y.
6. Anderson CM, Mandell AJ. Fractal Time and the Foundations of
Consciousness: Vertical Convergence of 1/f Phenomena from Ion
Channels to Behavioral States. In: Fractals of Brain, Fractals
of Mind: In Search of a Secret Symmetry Bond: Advances in Consciousnes
Research, 7, M. Stamenov & G. Globus (Series. Eds.) &
E Mac Cormac & M Stamenov (Vol. Eds.), published
by "John Benjamin" (Amsterdam & Philadelphia).
1996.
7. Haines DE, Dietrichs E, Mihailoff GA, McDonald EF: The cerebellar-hypothalamic
axis: basic circuits and clinical observations. International
Review of Neurobiology 1997; 41:83-107
8. Harper JW, Heath RG: Anatomic connections of the fastigial
nucleus to the rostral forebrain in the cat. Experimental Neurology
1973; 39(2):285-92
9. Harper JW, Heath RG: Ascending projections of the cerebellar
fastigial nuclei: connections to the ectosylvian gyrus. Experimental
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stimulation: effect on behavior and basal forebrain neurochemistry
in rat. Biological Psychiatry 1985; 20(12):1267-76
11. Dempesy CW, Tootle DM, Fontana CJ, Fitzjarrell AT, Garey RE,
Heath RG: Stimulation of the paleocerebellar cortex of the cat:
increased rate of synthesis and release of catecholamines at limbic
sites. Biological Psychiatry 1983; 18(1):127-32
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in limbic nuclei in response to stimulation and lesion of the
anterior vermal cortex of the cerebellum: studies in cat and rat.
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both caudate nuclei and both substantia nigrae in response to
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for intractable psychiatric illness. Journal of Nervous &
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chronic cerebellar stimulation in disorders of sensory communication
in the central nervous system. Boletin de Estudios Medicos y Biologicos
1974; 28(8-10):347-90
17. Riklan M, Cullinan T, Shulman M, Cooper IS: A psychometric
study of chronic cerebellar stimulation in man. Biological Psychiatry
1976; 11(5):543-74
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in man following chronic cerebellar stimulation for the relief
of spasticity or intractable seizures. Journal of Nervous &
Mental Disease 1977; 164(3):176-81
19. Berman AJ: Amelioration of aggression: response to selective
cerebellar lesions in the rhesus monkey. International Review
of Neurobiology 1997; 41:111-9
20. Schmahmann JD: From Movement to Thought - Anatomic Substrates
of the Cerebellar Contribution to Cognitive Processing [Review].
Human Brain Mapping 1996; 4(3):174-198
21. Fischler B, D'Haenen H, Cluydts R, Michiels V, Demets K, Bossuyt
A, Kaufman L, De Meirleir K: Comparison of 99m Tc HMPAO SPECT
scan between chronic fatigue syndrome, major depression and healthy
controls: an exploratory study of clinical correlates of regional
cerebral blood flow. Neuropsychobiology 1996; 34(4):175-83
22. Lauterbach EC: Bipolar disorders, dystonia, and compulsion
after dysfunction of the cerebellum, dentatorubrothalamic tract,
and substantia nigra. Biological Psychiatry 1996; 40(8):726-30
23. Loeber RT, Sherwood AR, Renshaw PF, Cohen BM, Yurgelun-Todd
DA: Differences in cerebellar blood volume in schizophrenia and
bipolar disorder. Schizophrenia Research 1999; 37(1):81-89
24. Beauregard M, Leroux JM, Bergman S, Arzoumanian Y, Beaudoin
G, Bourgouin P, Stip E: The functional neuroanatomy of major depression:
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